Sadat (IT) Academy
Dr. Gary H. Jones
Five Ethical
Decision-Making Principles (Perspectives)
Summary of the Five
Perspectives (table, revised)
Brief description of the Five
Perspectives
Criticisms of each of the
Five Perspectives
Summary of Five Ethical Decision-Making
Principles
|
Belief Systems |
Source of Moral
Authority |
|
Ethical Relativism
(self-interest) |
Moral authority is determined by individual or cultural
self-interests, customs and religious principles. An act is morally right if
it serves one’s self-interests and needs. |
|
Utilitarianism
(calculation of cost/benefit) |
Moral authority is determined by the consequences of an
act: An act is morally right if the net benefits over costs (greatest good)
are greatest for the majority (greatest number). |
|
Universalism
(duty) |
Moral authority is determined by the extent the intention
of an act treats all people with respect. Includes the requirement that
everyone would (should) act this way in the same circumstances. |
|
Rights
(individual entitlement) |
Moral authority is determined by individual rights
guaranteed to all in their pursuit of freedom of speech, choice, happiness,
and self-respect |
|
Justice
(fairness and equality) |
Moral authority is determined by the extent that
opportunities, wealth, and burdens are fairly distributed among all |
Brief Description of the Five Perspectives
Ethical [&
Cultural] Relativism
No universal standars
or rules can be used to guide the morality of an act. The logic of ethical
relativism extends to cultures: cultural relativism. As the saying goes,
"When in
Advantage: Flexibility. Social norms and values are seen in
a cultural context.
Business Implications: People doing business in a foreign country
are obliged to follow that country's social values, norms, and customs (and
laws, of course).
Utilitarianism
An action is judged as right or
good depending upon its consequences. The ends of an action justify the means
used to reach those ends. "The greatest good for
the greatest number."
Advantage: Practical, practicable, and especially useful when
resources are fixed or scarce.
Business Implications: Useful in business (and government) because
resources are usually fixed and the "greatest good" is sometimes
objective and quantifiable (able to be calculated numerically). This can
facilitate (simplify) decsion-making.
Universalism
A person should choose to act if
and only if he or she would be willing to have every person on earth, in that
same situation, act exactly that same way. There are no exceptions or
qualifications. Also, the action must respect all others, and treat
people as ends, not means to an end.
Advantage: The interests of people (as ends) are put
first. There are no exceptions, special situations, or shades of meaning
(but see "criticisms" below).
Business Implications: One only makes decisions as one would like to see
all other businesses and cultures make that same decision--no exceptions.
Human Rights
Individual rights mean
entitlements at birth. These entitlements usually include the right to
life, liberty, health, dignity, and choice. These rights are often,
although not always, seen as being granted to individuals by God. Rights
can override utilitarian principles.
Advantage: Human dignity and individual worth are always
protected, because they are seen as the greatest good.
Business Implications: Businesses tend to operate from a cost/benefit
(utilitarian perspective). But business executives should be aware that
in many cases, and in many cultures, individual rights must also be taken into
consideration.
Justice
The principle of justice deals
with fairness and equality. Benefits and opportunities -- as well as
burdens -- are to be shared equally.
Advantage: More easily codified into regulations and laws than
some other ethical principles. Along with the Rights perspective this
principle provides the foundation of many national laws.
Business Implications: Emphasis on equal opportunity for all has an impact
on hiring and promotion decisions. The justice principle is usually
written into law, and so has codified foundation. This can be helpful when
making business decisions in one's own country--or in a foreign land.
Criticisms of the Ethical Perspectives
Ethical [Cultural]
Relativism
1. May suggest an
underlying moral laziness. The logic of relatavism
may provide an excuse for not having or developing
moral standards that can be argued and tested against other claims,
opinions and standards.
2. Contradicts everyday experience. Moral reasoning is developed from
conversation, interaction, and argument.
3. Provides no resolution for conflict of different ethical systems.
Utilitarianism
1. There is no agreement on what
the "good" is. Who decides? Whose interests are first? (What if the
"good" conflicts among issues of health, peace, profits, pleasure,
and national security?)
2. There is no determination of the 'rightness' or 'wrongness' of
actions, but only of their consequences.
3. May fail to take into account long-term effects of an action or
decision.
4. The principles of justice and individual rights are ignored.
Universalism
1. The principle is imprecise; it
lacks practical utility. That is, it is difficult to think of all humanity
every time an ethical decision must be made.
2. Conflicts among a person's interests, or duties, are not
resolved. How does one decide which duty comes first?
Human
Rights
1. Some individuals will pretend
to advocate human rights while actually trying to advance selfish goals.
2. Protection of rights can exaggerate certain entitlements in society at
the expense of others. Do citizens of a racial minority in a society have
greater rights than the majority? What about hiring practices?
3. The limits of rights are sometimes hard to establish. Should an
elderly person who terminally ill (no cure) be kept alive as long as possible,
at great cost to society?
Justice
1. Outside of the jurisdiction of
the state (the government), who decides what is right and what is wrong?
What is fair?
2. Under what circumstances can individuals disagree with the government,
and what can they do about it?
3. Related to both of the above, can opportunities and burdens be equally
shared when it is not in the interest of those in power to do so?
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